What Is PostgreSQL? Understanding Network Protocols By WireX Systems

PostgreSQL: Network Protocol Explained

The PostgreSQL protocol is the communication protocol used by PostgreSQL, an open-source relational database management system (RDBMS). The protocol establishes the rules and guidelines for how clients and servers interact when exchanging data and queries in a PostgreSQL environment.

The PostgreSQL protocol is a client-server protocol, which means it involves two parties: the client application (e.g., a web application) and the server (the PostgreSQL database system). The protocol supports both simple and extended query cycles, as well as connection setup, query execution, and transaction management. It operates over a Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) connection or a Unix-domain socket.

Here are the key components of the PostgreSQL protocol:

  1. Connection setup: Before communication can occur, the client must establish a connection with the PostgreSQL server. This involves exchanging startup messages, including the client’s PostgreSQL version, the desired database, and user authentication credentials. The server responds with an authentication request, and once the client successfully authenticates, the server sends a ‘Ready for Query’ message.
  2. Simple query cycle: This cycle involves the client sending a single SQL query to the server in a single message. The server processes the query, returns the result (if any), and sends a ‘Ready for Query’ message to indicate that it’s ready for the next query.
  3. Extended query cycle: This cycle supports more complex queries, such as those involving prepared statements and parameterized queries. The extended query cycle consists of several steps, including: a. Parse: The client sends a ‘Parse’ message with the SQL query and parameter types. The server acknowledges the message with a ‘Parse Complete’ message. b. Bind: The client sends a ‘Bind’ message to associate the prepared statement with a specific set of parameter values. The server acknowledges with a ‘Bind Complete’ message. c. Describe (optional): The client can send a ‘Describe’ message to request information about the prepared statement or the portal. The server responds with a ‘Row Description’ message or a ‘No Data’ message. d. Execute: The client sends an ‘Execute’ message to execute the prepared statement. The server sends the query result (if any) and a ‘Command Complete’ message. e. Sync: The client sends a ‘Sync’ message, and the server responds with a ‘Ready for Query’ message.
  4. SSL/TLS encryption: The PostgreSQL protocol supports optional encryption using SSL/TLS to secure data in transit between the client and server.
  5. Error handling and notifications: The protocol defines various error and notice response messages that the server can send to inform the client about issues or events related to the connection, query execution, or other aspects of database operation.
  6. Connection termination: To close the connection, the client sends a ‘Terminate’ message, and the server closes the socket.

The PostgreSQL protocol is designed for efficiency and extensibility. It allows for the exchange of binary data and supports a wide range of SQL features, making it suitable for a variety of applications and use cases.

What Is PostgreSQL

PostgreSQL, often referred to as “Postgres,” is a powerful, open-source relational database management system (RDBMS) that uses the SQL (Structured Query Language) for querying and managing data. Initially developed at the University of California, Berkeley, in the 1980s, PostgreSQL has since evolved into a robust and versatile database system used by businesses, government organizations, and academic institutions worldwide.

PostgreSQL is known for its performance, scalability, and robustness. It supports advanced data types and offers a range of features that make it suitable for various types of applications, from simple web applications to complex data warehousing and analytics solutions.

Some key features of PostgreSQL include:

  1. ACID compliance: PostgreSQL ensures data consistency and reliability by adhering to the ACID (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, and Durability) properties. This means that transactions are processed reliably and in isolation from one another, preventing data corruption and ensuring database integrity.
  2. Extensibility: PostgreSQL is designed to be extensible, allowing users to define their own data types, operators, functions, and even languages. This makes it possible to adapt PostgreSQL to specific application requirements and use cases.
  3. Concurrency control: PostgreSQL uses Multi-Version Concurrency Control (MVCC) to manage concurrent access to the database. This approach enables multiple transactions to be processed concurrently without locking or affecting the performance of the system.
  4. Full-text search: PostgreSQL supports full-text search, allowing users to search for words and phrases within text documents and fields. This feature is particularly useful for applications that involve searching and indexing large amounts of text data.
  5. Support for various programming languages: PostgreSQL can be accessed and manipulated using a wide range of programming languages, including Java, Python, C, C++, Ruby, Go, and many others.
  6. Spatial data support: PostgreSQL, in conjunction with the PostGIS extension, provides support for geographic objects and spatial data types, enabling the development of location-based applications and geographic information systems (GIS).
  7. High availability and replication: PostgreSQL offers various options for high availability and replication, such as streaming replication, logical replication, and third-party tools. These options help ensure that the database remains available and responsive even in the face of hardware failures or other issues.
  8. Security features: PostgreSQL provides a range of security features, including support for SSL/TLS encryption, role-based access control, and row-level security, to help protect sensitive data and ensure the privacy of user information.

Overall, PostgreSQL is a versatile, high-performance database system that is suitable for a wide range of applications and industries. Its open-source nature and active development community ensure that it remains up-to-date with the latest technological advancements and best practices.

The Purpose Of PostgreSQL

PostgreSQL serves as a powerful and reliable relational database management system (RDBMS) that enables efficient storage, retrieval, and management of structured data. Its primary purpose is to manage large amounts of data in a consistent, organized, and secure manner, making it suitable for various applications and industries. The purposes of PostgreSQL can be summarized as follows:

  1. Data storage and management: PostgreSQL provides an efficient way to store and organize data in tables, allowing users to create, update, and delete records as needed. The database enforces data consistency and integrity through features like data validation, constraints, and ACID compliance.
  2. Data retrieval: PostgreSQL uses SQL, a standardized query language, for data retrieval. Users can perform simple to complex queries to access and manipulate the data stored in the database. This enables quick and accurate extraction of information to support decision-making and reporting.
  3. Scalability and performance: PostgreSQL is designed for high performance and scalability, making it suitable for managing large databases and handling high levels of concurrent users and transactions. Features like indexing, query optimization, and concurrency control ensure that the database remains responsive and efficient even as the data volume and user load increase.
  4. Application development: PostgreSQL serves as a robust and flexible backend for various types of applications, including web applications, mobile apps, data analytics platforms, and enterprise software. Its support for multiple programming languages and extensibility allows developers to build custom solutions tailored to their specific needs.
  5. Data security: PostgreSQL offers a range of security features, such as encryption, access control, and auditing, to protect sensitive data and ensure the privacy of user information. These features help organizations comply with data protection regulations and maintain trust with their users.
  6. Data integration and migration: PostgreSQL can be integrated with various data sources and tools, making it possible to consolidate, analyze, and transform data from multiple systems. Its support for standard SQL and various data formats facilitates data migration from other database systems, ensuring seamless data transfer and interoperability.
  7. Spatial data support: With the PostGIS extension, PostgreSQL can handle spatial data and perform complex geographic queries, enabling the development of location-based applications and geographic information systems (GIS).
  8. High availability and disaster recovery: PostgreSQL’s replication and backup features ensure that the database remains available and operational even in the face of hardware failures, data corruption, or other issues. This helps organizations maintain continuous access to their data and minimize the risk of downtime.

In summary, the purpose of PostgreSQL is to provide a robust, flexible, and secure platform for managing structured data, supporting a wide range of applications and use cases across various industries. Its open-source nature and active community ensure that PostgreSQL remains at the forefront of technological advancements and best practices in database management.

Benefits Of PostgreSQL

PostgreSQL offers numerous benefits as a powerful, open-source relational database management system (RDBMS). Some of the key benefits include:

  1. Open-source and cost-effective: PostgreSQL is open-source, which means it is freely available and can be modified and distributed without licensing fees. This makes it an attractive choice for organizations seeking to reduce costs while still utilizing a powerful and feature-rich database system.
  2. Reliability and data integrity: PostgreSQL is known for its reliability and adherence to the ACID (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability) properties, ensuring data consistency and integrity throughout transactions. This makes it a trustworthy choice for businesses that require a high level of data accuracy and stability.
  3. Scalability and performance: PostgreSQL is designed to handle large amounts of data and high levels of concurrent users and transactions. Its features such as indexing, query optimization, and concurrency control contribute to its excellent performance and scalability, making it suitable for various types and sizes of applications.
  4. Extensibility and customizability: PostgreSQL is highly extensible, allowing users to define their own data types, operators, functions, and even languages. This enables the database to be tailored to specific application requirements and use cases, providing flexibility in development and deployment.
  5. Support for multiple programming languages: PostgreSQL can be accessed and manipulated using a wide range of programming languages, such as Java, Python, C, C++, Ruby, Go, and more. This broad support makes it easy to integrate PostgreSQL into diverse application environments and development ecosystems.
  6. Strong community and active development: PostgreSQL has a large and active community of developers and contributors, ensuring that the database remains up-to-date with the latest technological advancements and best practices. This active development also means that there is a wealth of documentation, resources, and third-party tools available to help users get the most out of PostgreSQL.
  7. Advanced features: PostgreSQL offers a range of advanced features, such as full-text search, support for spatial data (with PostGIS), and JSON data types, which allow for sophisticated data processing and analytics.
  8. Security: PostgreSQL provides several security features, including SSL/TLS encryption for data in transit, role-based access control, and row-level security, to protect sensitive data and ensure user privacy.
  9. Cross-platform support: PostgreSQL can be installed and run on various operating systems, such as Linux, macOS, and Windows, making it suitable for diverse IT environments.
  10. High availability and disaster recovery: PostgreSQL offers various options for high availability and replication, such as streaming replication, logical replication, and third-party tools, to ensure continuous access to data and minimize the risk of downtime.

In summary, PostgreSQL offers a robust, flexible, and secure database management solution that is suitable for a wide range of applications and industries. I

While PostgreSQL is a powerful and feature-ric

Limitations Of PostgreSQL

h database management system, it has certain limitations that users should consider when selecting a database for their applications:

  1. Write performance: PostgreSQL’s focus on data consistency and ACID compliance can lead to slower write performance compared to some other databases, particularly in write-heavy applications. This is because PostgreSQL uses Multi-Version Concurrency Control (MVCC) to manage transactions, which can increase write overhead.
  2. No built-in sharding: PostgreSQL does not have built-in support for sharding (horizontal partitioning of data across multiple nodes) to distribute data and workload. While there are third-party tools and extensions to enable sharding, it is not as seamless or straightforward as in some other databases, such as Cassandra or MongoDB.
  3. Complexity: PostgreSQL is a powerful and feature-rich database, which also means it can be complex to configure, manage, and optimize for specific use cases. The learning curve can be steep for users who are new to PostgreSQL or relational databases in general.
  4. Limited support for non-relational data: Although PostgreSQL supports JSON data types and some non-relational features, it is primarily a relational database system. For applications requiring a more flexible data model, a NoSQL database such as MongoDB or Couchbase may be more suitable.
  5. Resource consumption: PostgreSQL can consume more system resources (memory, CPU, and disk space) compared to some other databases, particularly when dealing with large amounts of data or complex queries. Proper configuration and optimization are necessary to ensure optimal performance and resource utilization.
  6. Ecosystem and commercial support: While PostgreSQL has a strong and active open-source community, its ecosystem may not be as extensive as that of some other databases, such as MySQL or Microsoft SQL Server. Additionally, commercial support options may be more limited compared to proprietary databases, which could be a concern for some organizations.
  7. Real-time analytics: PostgreSQL is not specifically designed for real-time analytics or high-velocity data processing, and it may not be the best fit for applications that require real-time data analysis, such as high-frequency trading or real-time monitoring systems. Alternative databases, like Apache Cassandra or Amazon DynamoDB, might be better suited for these use cases.

In many cases, its benefits outweigh its limitations, making it a popular choice for organizations of all sizes. It’s essential to carefully consider your specific application requirements and evaluate whether PostgreSQL meets your needs or if an alternative database might be more appropriate.

How Does PostgreSQL Work

PostgreSQL is a relational database management system (RDBMS) that stores and manages structured data using tables with rows and columns. It follows the client-server architecture, where a client application sends requests to a PostgreSQL server, which processes the requests and returns the results. Here’s an overview of how PostgreSQL works:

  1. Data storage: PostgreSQL stores data in tables that consist of rows and columns. Each row represents a record, and each column represents a specific attribute of the data. Tables are organized within schemas, which are part of a database. PostgreSQL uses a set of files on the file system to store the actual data, indexes, and transaction logs.
  2. Data types: PostgreSQL supports various data types, such as text, integers, floating-point numbers, dates, and more. Users can also define custom data types, providing flexibility in data representation and storage.
  3. SQL and queries: PostgreSQL uses the Structured Query Language (SQL) to interact with the data. SQL allows users to perform operations such as inserting, updating, deleting, and retrieving data from the tables. SQL queries can range from simple to complex, involving multiple tables, conditions, and aggregations.
  4. Indexing: To optimize query performance, PostgreSQL uses indexes, which are data structures that provide a faster way to look up rows in a table based on specific column values. Indexes can significantly speed up queries, especially in large databases.
  5. Transactions: PostgreSQL supports transactions, which are a series of SQL commands that are executed as a single unit of work. Transactions follow the ACID properties (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, and Durability) to ensure data consistency and integrity.
  6. Concurrency control: PostgreSQL uses Multi-Version Concurrency Control (MVCC) to handle multiple concurrent transactions without locking. MVCC creates a separate version of the data for each transaction, allowing simultaneous reads and writes without conflicts or performance degradation.
  7. Connection management: PostgreSQL supports multiple simultaneous client connections. When a client connects, the PostgreSQL server spawns a separate process called a backend to handle the client’s requests. Each backend runs independently and manages its resources, such as memory and temporary storage.
  8. Security: PostgreSQL provides various security features, such as authentication, role-based access control, and encryption (using SSL/TLS), to protect data and restrict unauthorized access.
  9. Extensibility: PostgreSQL allows users to extend its functionality by defining custom data types, functions, operators, and even languages. This extensibility makes PostgreSQL adaptable to a wide range of use cases and requirements.
  10. Backup and recovery: PostgreSQL offers several methods for backing up and recovering data, such as logical backups (using SQL dump files) and physical backups (file system-level backups). It also supports point-in-time recovery (PITR) to restore the database to a specific point in time.
  11. Replication and high availability: PostgreSQL supports various replication techniques, such as streaming replication and logical replication, to ensure data redundancy and high availability. This helps protect against data loss and minimize downtime in case of hardware failure or other issues.

In summary, PostgreSQL works by storing and managing structured data in tables and using SQL to interact with the data. Its features, such as indexing, transactions, concurrency control, and extensibility, make it a powerful and flexible database system suitable for a wide range of applications and industries.

Security Concerns Of PostgreSQL

While PostgreSQL offers several built-in security features, users should still be aware of potential security concerns and take appropriate measures to ensure the safety and privacy of their data. Some common security concerns related to PostgreSQL include:

  1. Authentication: Ensuring that only authorized users can access the PostgreSQL database is critical. Using strong authentication mechanisms, such as password encryption or certificate-based authentication, can help prevent unauthorized access.
  2. Role-based access control: PostgreSQL uses roles to manage privileges and permissions for database objects. Carefully managing and assigning appropriate roles to users can help prevent unauthorized actions, such as data modification or deletion.
  3. SQL injection: SQL injection attacks occur when malicious SQL code is executed through user input, potentially leading to data exposure, corruption, or deletion. To mitigate SQL injection risks, validate user input, use prepared statements or parameterized queries, and limit privileges assigned to database users.
  4. Network security: Securing network communication between the PostgreSQL server and client applications is essential. Use SSL/TLS encryption to protect data in transit and consider using firewalls and network segmentation to limit the exposure of your database server to the internet.
  5. Logging and monitoring: Regularly monitoring logs for suspicious activity can help detect and address potential security threats. PostgreSQL provides various logging options, such as logging client connections, disconnections, and executed SQL statements, which can be used to audit user activities and identify potential security issues.
  6. Data encryption: Protecting sensitive data stored in the PostgreSQL database is crucial. Use encryption features, such as Transparent Data Encryption (TDE) or column-level encryption, to secure sensitive data at rest.
  7. Row-level security: Row-level security (RLS) allows you to define access policies on a per-row basis, further restricting the data that specific users can access. Implementing RLS can help ensure that users only have access to the data they need, reducing the risk of data leaks.
  8. Security updates and patch management: Regularly applying security updates and patches for PostgreSQL and the underlying operating system is essential to protect against known vulnerabilities. Stay informed about security advisories and updates by following the PostgreSQL mailing lists or security-related announcements.
  9. Backup and disaster recovery: Implementing a robust backup and disaster recovery strategy is crucial to protect your data from loss due to hardware failures, data corruption, or other incidents. Regularly test your backups to ensure that they can be successfully restored in case of an emergency.
  10. Secure configuration: PostgreSQL provides various configuration options that can affect security, such as connection settings, authentication methods, and logging. Ensure that your PostgreSQL server is configured securely by following best practices and guidelines provided by the PostgreSQL community and documentation.

By addressing these security concerns and implementing best practices, you can significantly reduce the risks associated with running a PostgreSQL database and safeguard your data from potential threats.

Attack Example Using PostgreSQL

While there aren’t any well-known, large-scale attacks specifically targeting PostgreSQL databases or exploiting the PostgreSQL protocol in the news, there have been various incidents where attackers compromised PostgreSQL databases along with other types of databases. Typically, these attacks exploit weak security practices, such as weak passwords, unpatched software, or misconfigurations, rather than vulnerabilities in the PostgreSQL protocol itself.

One notable example of a large-scale attack that affected multiple database types, including PostgreSQL, was the “Meow” attack that occurred in mid-2020. The Meow attack involved an unknown attacker who targeted thousands of poorly secured databases, including Elasticsearch, MongoDB, Redis, and PostgreSQL databases. The attacker wiped the contents of these databases and replaced them with the word “meow.” The exact motivation behind the Meow attack was unclear, but it highlighted the importance of implementing strong security practices to protect databases from potential threats.

While this example did not specifically target the PostgreSQL protocol, it demonstrates the potential consequences of poor security practices when managing databases, including PostgreSQL. To protect your PostgreSQL database from attacks, it’s crucial to follow best practices, such as using strong authentication, keeping your software up to date, implementing proper access control, and monitoring for suspicious activity.

WireX Systems NDR can Help with PostgreSQL Investigations

WireX Systems Ne2ition NDR (Network Detection and Response) is a security solution that monitors network traffic for suspicious activity, detects potential threats, and responds to incidents in real-time. Ne2ition NDR can help with investigations of attacks targeting PostgreSQL databases or exploiting the PostgreSQL protocol in the following ways:

  1. Traffic analysis: Ne2ition NDR solutions analyze network traffic to identify unusual patterns or anomalies that could indicate malicious activity. By monitoring traffic to and from PostgreSQL servers, Ne2ition NDR can help detect potential attacks, such as unauthorized access attempts, data exfiltration, or brute force attacks.
  2. Baseline behavior: Ne2ition NDR establishes a baseline of normal network behavior, which allows them to identify deviations from the norm. If an attacker is attempting to exploit PostgreSQL vulnerabilities or perform other malicious activities, theNe2ition  solution may detect this unusual behavior and raise an alert.
  3. Protocol analysis: Ne2ition NDR solutions can analyze the PostgreSQL protocol, detecting anomalies or suspicious activity in the protocol’s communication patterns. For example, an NDR tool might detect an unusually high number of failed authentication attempts or unexpected SQL commands, suggesting a potential attack.
  4. Threat intelligence: Ne2ition NDR incorporates threat intelligence feeds, which provide information on known attack patterns, indicators of compromise (IoCs), and other relevant data. By correlating this intelligence with observed network activity, NDR can help detect and investigate attacks targeting PostgreSQL databases.
  5. Incident response: When Ne2ition NDR detects potential threats, they can initiate automated responses, such as blocking malicious IP addresses, isolating affected systems, or notifying security teams. This rapid response can help limit the impact of an attack and provide valuable information for further investigation.
  6. Forensic data: Ne2ition NDR collects and stores detailed network data, such as packet captures and metadata, which can be invaluable for post-incident analysis and forensic investigations. This data can help security teams understand the attacker’s tactics, techniques, and procedures (TTPs) and identify potential vulnerabilities in the PostgreSQL server.
  7. Integration with other security tools: Ne2ition NDR can be integrated with other security tools, such as Security Information and Event Management (SIEM) systems, Endpoint Detection and Response (EDR) tools, or firewalls, to provide a more comprehensive view of the security landscape and enhance threat detection capabilities.

By providing real-time monitoring, detection, and response capabilities, Ne2ition solutions can help organizations detect and investigate attacks targeting PostgreSQL databases or exploiting the PostgreSQL protocol. Implementing Ne2ition NDR as part of a layered security strategy can help improve overall network security and protect critical database assets.

Overall, WireX Systems leverages the power of network analysis to detect and protect against cyber threats.  WireX Systems Ne2ition analyzes PostgreSQL traffic, extracts and indexes over a dozen different attributes including the ones displays below to provide in-depth visibility and context for detection, response, forensics and hunting scenarios over PostgreSQL

Client ip server ip Session owner Errors Anomalies
Entity names Server port Client port Packet time
Client message Queries preview Server messages Server message types
Database name User MD5 user password Queries
Parameter status Command completion    


These attributes will also help WireX Systems map into the MITRE ATT&CK framework techniques and tactics.

MITRE ATT&CK and PostgreSQL

MITRE ATT&CK is a knowledge base of tactics, techniques, and procedures used by cyber adversaries in their attacks. While there aren’t specific techniques in the MITRE ATT&CK framework that exclusively target PostgreSQL, there are several tactics and techniques that can be applied to attacks over PostgreSQL or other database systems. Some examples include:

  1. Tactic: Initial Access Technique: T1078 – Valid Accounts Description: Attackers may obtain valid credentials (e.g., stolen, guessed, or brute-forced) to gain initial access to a PostgreSQL database.
  2. Tactic: Persistence Technique: T1505 – Server Software Component Description: Attackers could create or modify stored procedures, functions, or triggers in PostgreSQL to maintain persistence in the compromised system.
  3. Tactic: Privilege Escalation Technique: T1078 – Valid Accounts Description: Attackers may exploit misconfigurations or vulnerabilities in PostgreSQL to escalate their privileges, gaining higher levels of access or control over the database.
  4. Tactic: Defense Evasion Technique: T1562 – Impair Defenses Description: Attackers may disable or modify logging settings in PostgreSQL to evade detection and avoid leaving traces of their activities.
  5. Tactic: Credential Access Technique: T1003 – OS Credential Dumping Description: Attackers might try to dump credentials stored in PostgreSQL, such as hashes, tokens, or other sensitive data, for further exploitation.
  6. Tactic: Discovery Technique: T1210 – Exploitation of Remote Services Description: Attackers may probe PostgreSQL servers for vulnerabilities or misconfigurations, such as default credentials or open ports, to gather information and plan their attack.
  7. Tactic: Lateral Movement Technique: T1210 – Exploitation of Remote Services Description: Once attackers have compromised a PostgreSQL server, they may attempt to exploit other systems or services within the network, using the database server as a pivot point.
  8. Tactic: Collection Technique: T1530 – Data from Information Repositories Description: Attackers may extract sensitive information from the compromised PostgreSQL database, such as personally identifiable information (PII), intellectual property, or financial data.
  9. Tactic: Command and Control Technique: T1071 – Application Layer Protocol Description: Attackers might use the PostgreSQL protocol as a command and control channel to communicate with the compromised system, sending commands or exfiltrating data.
  10. Tactic: Exfiltration Technique: T1041 – Exfiltration Over C2 Channel Description: Attackers could exfiltrate data from the compromised PostgreSQL server over the same command and control channel, blending in with legitimate traffic to evade detection.

These tactics and techniques from the MITRE ATT&CK framework can be applied to various database systems, including PostgreSQL, and help organizations understand potential attack vectors and improve their security posture.

Conclusion

In conclusion, PostgreSQL is a powerful, open-source relational database management system (RDBMS) known for its performance, reliability, and extensibility. It stores and manages structured data using tables with rows and columns and employs SQL to interact with the data. PostgreSQL offers a wide range of features, such as indexing, transactions, concurrency control, and user-defined data types, making it suitable for various applications and industries.

However, like any database system, PostgreSQL has its limitations. Some of these limitations include performance challenges with large datasets or complex queries, lack of built-in horizontal scaling, and potential difficulties in migrating from other database systems.

Security is a crucial aspect of PostgreSQL, as with any database system. Common security concerns include authentication, role-based access control, SQL injection, network security, logging and monitoring, data encryption, row-level security, security updates and patch management, and secure configuration. It is essential to follow best practices and guidelines provided by the PostgreSQL community and documentation to mitigate potential security risks.

Organizations using PostgreSQL must be aware of both its benefits and limitations and take appropriate measures to ensure data security and privacy. By implementing robust security practices and staying informed about potential threats, organizations can effectively harness the power of PostgreSQL while minimizing the risks associated with managing sensitive data.

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